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Richard M. Nixon January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994 Political Party – Republican Party Dates in Office – January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974 Vice President – Spiro T. Agnew (1969-1973) and Gerald R. Ford (1973-1974)

__Thematic Context – American Identity __  Two defining American ideals were tested during Nixon’s administration: equality and justice. The Watergate Scandal had disastrous effects on Nixon’s presidency and proved to the nation the durability of the law while also forcing them to question the trustworthiness of their leaders. Additionally, women continued their movement for equality that had begun following the changes in employment of the 1950s and the sexual revolution of the 1960s, sparking political changes from the Nixon administration and the Supreme Court.  The Watergate Scandal and following impeachment trial of President Nixon undeniably added to the American identity as one that strongly values justice for all, regardless of position in society or political power. The scandal involved a cover-up for the burglary of the Democratic National Headquarters by the Committee to Reelect the President. As the investigation proceeded, Nixon was revealed to have been involved in an enormous cover-up that involved unconstitutional actions and abuse of power. In the past, many had been distrustful of judicial offices for favoring the rich and powerful. However, the House Judiciary Committee’s findings and approval of the orders of impeachment strengthened the validity of the statement that the US was a place of justice. If the president of the United States was not given special rights, then no one could be. However, the Watergate Scandal also bred public distrust for the president and others in office. Thus, American identity was reaffirmed  Jus as important to the affirmation of existing American ideals imperative to the identity of Americans was the second wave of feminism. The first wave of feminism focused on basic rights and equalities, including suffrage. The second wave of feminism broadened women’s equality in society, especially in the areas of employment, education, and reproductive rights. The hard work of feminist organizations, notably the National Organization for Women had promising results. In 1972, Congress passed Title IX to prevent schools and universities from discrimination in school activities based on sex. The act had a notable change in American identity, as the equality of men and women in sports programs did much to discredit the stereotype of women as weak, thus reaffirmation of the US as a land of equality. However, the biggest effort of the feminists, the Equal Rights Amendment, failed to be ratified due to unyielding opposition. The amendment, passed by Congress, would have ensured that equal rights were not denied by the US or state governments. An opposition to the amendment was led by Phyllis Schlafly on the argument that not only would it end the right of women to be supported by their husbands and privacy rights, but that it would also lead to more radical moves in equality including the legality of abortion and homosexual marriages. Though the amendment ultimately failed and has not been implemented since, it did have a strong effect on the feminist movement. Feminists scored one large victory in 1973 with the Supreme Court decision in //Roe v. Wade//. In response to controversy surrounding new birth control options, the Supreme Court in 1965 had decided that women had the right to privacy. It was this right to privacy that justified the Supreme Court’s decision in the landmark case, //Roe v. Wade//. In this case, the court ruled that states did not have the power to deny a woman the right to terminate a pregnancy, as this right was constitutionally guaranteed to her by the Fourteenth Amendment, a decision that is currently under attack and possibility of repeal. Opposition to the decision also questioned American identity and the separation of powers between the federal government and the states. Overall though, the feminist movement during Nixon’s presidency was well fought and enjoyed strong rewards, thus expanding America’s tradition values of equality and personal rights.

__Thesis __  In Nixon’s five years as president, he faced a wide array of issues that regarded militaristic, diplomatic, environmental, and economic matters. Concerning the former three, he had extreme successes; in foreign affairs, an end was finally brought to the distressing Vietnam War, relations with China were beginning to open, and relations with the USSR were improving dramatically all while Nixon introduced much needed environmental reforms at home. Nixon had far less success in economic policy, as the nation faced inflation and inadequate policies for prevention. However, regardless of whether Nixon had succeeded or failed regarding these issues, it has been forgotten in the minds of many Americans as the disgust of the Watergate Scandal has taken priority. An embarrassment to the honesty of the government, it caused the only resignation of a president in American history. Because it is impossible to assess Nixon’s presidency without taking into account the public’s opinions, the Watergate scandal has undermined an otherwise acceptable presidency and it is for that reason that Nixon deserves a C- for his presidency.

__Goals __  In his inaugural address, Nixon was adamant in the belief that peace could only be obtained by unity between the people of the country and cooperation between the people and the government. Nixon did not succeed in uniting the country. The Vietnam War drew such sharp criticism as the country and government remained hopelessly divided between hawks and doves. In extreme cases, opposing viewpoints ended in violence, especially in mass demonstrations and riots by those who opposed the war. However, despite his failing to unite or improve the country’s opinion on the war, he did succeed in bringing the last troops out of Vietnam. On the other hand, this did not end the war. Fighting continued on in Vietnam without the military aid of the United States. Though there were bumps along the way and an unfavorable treaty, Nixon succeeded in attaining his ultimate goal in withdrawing US troops and this goal should be considered a success.  Like all presidents, Nixon entered into the presidency with a strong desire to uphold the US Constitution. This goal ended in failure. As events in the Watergate Scandal demonstrated, Nixon flagrantly violated the Constitution on several accounts by exercising powers not granted to him and by ignoring demands to provide evidence for his crimes.  Nixon also had the goal of transforming the government from its previous Democratic administrations to incorporate Republican ideals. Nixon’s success in this goal is inconclusive but was also effective in curbing partisan differences. Regarding economic policy, Nixon entered the presidency with firmly conservative values, but in the face of economic downturn, he implemented tax cuts, a wage and price freeze, and a 10% import tax. In addition, Nixon also took several actions as president which were strongly liberal. One of these was advancements in environmental regulation, though many claim these laws were to prevent the Democratic led Congress from passing more radical legislation. In addition to the advancements made in environmental protection, Nixon also supported bills that went against the call for less pollution, including the Supersonic Transport. Another area in which Nixon contradicted Republican principles was in welfare programs, including, the introduction of the Supplement Security Income system to guarantee insurance for the elderly and disabled, and expansions on the Food Stamp Program, Medicare and Medicaid, and Social Security. Nixon did stay true to his ideals of reducing federal spending through his plan for revenue sharing, achieved by the passage of the State and Local Assistance Act to deliver funds from the federal government to state and local governments. Overall, though his motivations for his actions are debatable, Nixon took both liberal and conservative actions while in office with varying degrees of success.

__Congress __ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Nixon was in the unique and frustrating position of not having the Republican Party carry either house in Congress. This naturally led to many problems between the executive and legislative branches. Further complicating issues, Congress was deeply divided between the pro-war hawks and the anti-war doves. As a Republican president serving after a Democratic administration and alongside a Democratic Congress, Nixon was forced to make decisions that pleased others, even ones that contradicted his Republican beliefs. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Nixon first faced partisan issues in Congress. To deal with an uncooperative Congress, Nixon frequently made compromising decisions, most notably in his economic policy and welfare programs. Partisan disputes also arose in the area of environmental protection. It is highly speculated that Nixon took liberal steps in this direction for political power while remaining true to Republican ideals of lower government spending. It was for this reason that vetoed the The compromising efforts of Nixon in domestic policies created a positive and cooperative atmosphere in Congress. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Much more opposition was faced regarding Nixon’s foreign policies. Disputes between the hawks and doves resulted in the prolonged fighting in Vietnam when Congress failed to pass the McGovern Hatfield Amendment. Opposition especially arose in response to his decisions to expand the war in Vietnam, including invasions of and attacks on Cambodia and Laos. Congress’s opposition to Nixon’s display of power ended in the repeal of the Tonkin Resolution, the resolution which gave the president decision making power regarding the war. The War Powers Resolution, passed over Nixon’s veto; was also intended to limit Nixon’s powers in the war. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Nixon’s relationship with Congress came to its lowest point during Nixon’s impeachment process. Realizing the magnitude of Nixon’s crimes, the House found three orders of impeachment against him. There was no doubt that there not enough of Nixon’s supporters in Congress to vote against impeachment. His impeachment inevitable, Nixon was forced to resign.

__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Positive Outcome __ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Nixon became president at a time when the country was struggling through the longest and most strongly opposed war in American history. US involvement in the Vietnam War had been steadily increasing throughout the 1960s. Originally begun as an attempt to support the pro-Western Diem regime in the South from communism in the North, it spread to a war that was fought largely by the Americans, costing 58,000 of them their lives and wounding 304,000 others. Lyndon B. Johnson, Nixon’s predecessor, was responsible for severely escalating the war, using the Tonkin Resolution as the basis for his actions. Under Johnson, numerous air raids were conducted on Vietnam and the first ground forces were sent to the country, troops peaking at 550,000 in 1968. In despite of his efforts, the war raged on with heavy losses and low morale and with few diplomatic efforts towards peace taking place. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Nixon entered the presidency with a determination to withdraw US forces from Vietnam while also providing South Vietnam with enough training and arms to continue the war themselves, a process referred to as “Vietnamization.” <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> One important aspect of Nixon’s “Vietnamization” was to replace the withdrawn troops with increased bombings of the North. These bombings were dramatically increased twice. The first was in response to the North’s attempt to cross the border and attack the South in 1972. The North’s devastating defeat and the upcoming US Presidential election served as catalysts for compromising negotiations to take place. In order to speed agreement, the US again increased bombing of the North, known as the Christmas Bombings. The North finally agreed on the Paris Peace Accords in January, 1973. The last troops of the United States were removed, North Vietnam released the remaining prisoners of war, and the US was permitted to continue financial support to the South. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Despite Nixon’s claim that there was a “silent majority” of Americans who supported the Vietnam War, public demonstrations suggested otherwise. Angered by the government’s inability to provide a rational reason as to why the US was still involved in Vietnam, many were sharply opposed to the pointless loss of American lives, and were appalled by certain actions of the US forces, including the My Lai massacre of Vietnamese civilians, including women and children. The anti-war movement was given further motivation in response to the US’s invasion and bombing of a supposedly neutral country, Cambodia. Such actions in the war sparked riots, notably among college students. The most famous of these university riots occurred at Kent State and resulted in the death of four at the hands of the National Guard. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Even though Nixon’s policies succeeded in pulling out many men from the war, fighting was also expanded with ground invasions of Cambodia, used as a supply post for North Vietnam and their allies in the South, the Viet Cong. The US also joined with South Vietnam in a failed invasion of Laos. Nixon’s actions in expanding the war brought not only opposition from the public but also caused the Senate to repeal the Tonkin Resolution and thus limited Nixon’s powers in the war. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">One of Nixon’s largest successes as president occurred as part of his broader plan to end the war in Vietnam. He believed that he could apply pressure to the North by creating closer ties with two large Communist countries: China and the Soviet Union. Nixon became the first president to visit China, thus beginning a reversal in relations between the US and China in which agreements were made regarding science, culture, and trade. More success accompanied Nixon’s trip to Russia, which was encouraged to begin negotiations out of fear of the US’s improving relations with China. The two nations engaged in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks and reached agreements to limit the number of anti-ballistic missiles allowed. Though the Cold War was not ended and the countries continued to rival each other, the agreements had a positive effect on their relationship. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Even though Nixon had several failures regarding the Vietnam War, including public disapproval of the agonizingly slow withdrawal of US troops and a peace agreement that allowed the North to keep several forces in the South, it is of no doubt that Nixon did what was best for the people. The US was involved in a long and costly war that had little chance of victory and even less support from the public. Without a real reason to fight, soldiers overseas lost their morale and received dishonorable discharges for desertion while men at home burned their draft cards. Though the war did not end in the preferred American victory its citizens had come to expect, it was a war that, all things considered, needed to be ended. The prevention of further American casualties has overshadowed the US’s disgraceful exit from Vietnam. Nixon’s role in contributing to the end of the war is his greatest action as president.

__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Negative Outcome __ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Nixon had numerous successes in both foreign and domestic policy, including the end of the Vietnam War, improved relations with the Soviet Union and China, and environmental reforms. However, scandal, as demonstrated by earlier presidencies, has undermined those achievements, turning praise and pride of his successes to scorn and shame at his failures. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The investigation surrounding the Watergate Scandal revealed to America various abuses made by their trusted leaders. The investigation into these crimes began following a 1972 break in at the Democratic National Committee at Watergate in an attempt to plant bugs. It was discovered that men in the break-in were linked to ex-CIA worker E. Howard Hunt and the Committee for the re-election of the President. Still further information was found that unraveled an extravagant cover-up, ranking as the largest and most destructive political scandal in American history. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> In 1971, parts of the Pentagon papers, detailing the US’s involvement in Indochina that were commissioned during Johnson’s presidency, were leaked by the press. Knowing the damaging effects the leak had on the four previous presidents, Nixon became paranoid of a conspiracy designed to destroy him by releasing to the public his secret bombings of Cambodia. In response to the imagined threat, Nixon created a special unit, known as the “plumbers,” to prevent any leaks from the Nixon administration to the press. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The first order of business for the plumbers was a burglary to obtain damaging information on the man responsible for the leak, Daniel Ellsberg. Additionally, the Internal Revenue Service was used to issue tax audits to Nixon’s opponents, a blatantly illegal move by the president. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Without a doubt, the president’s decision to cover-up the Watergate Scandal was the most detrimental decision he could have made as it ended in the ultimate shame for a president. Once it was discovered that Nixon had been involved in the scandals, his public rating dropped drastically, despite a landslide victory in the election 1972. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">During the televised hearings, John Dean provided further information about Nixon’s involvement in the Watergate scandals, though evidence was not conclusive and Nixon sharply rejected any involvement. This problem was solved with the realization that Nixon had taped all of his political conversations. The Senate Committee conducting the investigation demanded the release of the tapes, but Nixon refused on the grounds of executive privilege. Eventually, he was forced to hand over the tapes after the Supreme Court sided with the Senate, declaring that Nixon had no right to withhold the tapes. They were released with large gaps of audio intentionally cut. The public opinion of Nixon, already disastrously low, sunk even further following the “Saturday Night Massacre,” or the firing of Special Prosecutor and the abolition of its office, accompanied by the resignations of two attorneys. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">In July 1974, three orders of impeachment were approved by House of Representatives. The first was obstruction of justice, which included Nixon’s use of perjury and acceptance of bribes. The second was abuse of power in Nixon’s improper use of the CIA, FBI, and IRS. Last was Nixon’s refusal to release the tapes in their entirety. In response to the overwhelming public opinion and Congress’s decisive movement towards impeachment, Nixon made the decision to resign from office in a desperate attempt to maintain some of his past dignity. Thus, Nixon has gained notoriety as the only president forced to resign. Because of these scandals, Nixon is often remembered as nothing more than a criminal. Not only did his actions lead to his own undoing, but countless Americans would forevermore grow distrustful of the political figures in office.

__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Influential Decision __ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Though dire foreign issues dominated much of the president’s attention, Nixon managed to make strong progress in new environmental measures at home. Nixon began to take momentous steps in the field of environmental protection (in the past only reaching as far as conservation), including voicing his intentions to create an America suitable for man and nature. Early successes in achieving this were the establishment of the Environmental Quality Council office in his cabinet and the passage of the National Environmental Protection Act. Both of these actions were intended to ensure that America was a place where man could live comfortably with nature. NEPA set up measures to regulate the environmental effect of federal government agencies. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Nixon’s actions culminated in the creation of Environmental Protection Agency, which was dedicated to preventing pollution by enforcing that standards for environmental protection were set and the conduction of research to advise the president on needed environmental reforms. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The early successes Nixon had in environmental protection allowed for further successes during his presidency to curb various types of pollution. A large success was the passage of the Clean Water Act of 1972. Nixon also took a step forward in environmental protection when the Marine Mammal Protection Act became the first to target a specific ecosystem. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The effects of Nixon’s environmental reforms have lasted long beyond his presidency. Nixon was responsible for initiating the largest environmental reforms since Teddy Roosevelt’s presidency. In 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act was passed, and stills serves as EPA’s main legislation to protect the drinking water in America. Before the Nixon administration, the federal government had no control to regulate the air or water pollution. Because Nixon implemented his many environmental reforms, the United States is much cleaner today than it would have been had Nixon never taken those steps. The EPA continues to serve as an important program that deals with environmental issues in order to make America a cleaner, safer, and healthier nation. Most recently, it is taking steps to regulate emissions that contribute to climate change and concerns surrounding natural gas drilling.

__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Conclusion __ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> In some regards, the United States was in a much better state following Nixon’s presidency. A grueling and costly war in Vietnam had been brought to an overdue end, and the United States’ relations with two countries viewed as communist foes were beginning to brighten. In other ways, however, the US’s state had deteriorated. Though Nixon’s economic policies had lowered the poverty rate drastically, they were insufficient to prevent inflation. By the end of his administration, the country faced further economic troubles after worsening relations with the Middle East resulted in an oil crisis. Though the aforementioned actions by the president should be heavily considered when evaluating Nixon’s presidency, it is impossible to ignore the ruinous effects of the Watergate Scandal. It is for all of these reasons that President Richard Nixon deserves a C- for his presidency.

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