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James Monroe April 28, 1758 – July 4, 1831 Political Party – Democratic-Republican Terms in Office – March 4, 1817 – March 4, 1825 (Two Terms) Vice President – Daniel D. Tompkins (Both Terms)

Thematic Context America’s sense of identity increased dramatically during James Monroe’s presidency; the so called “Era of Good Feelings.” During past presidencies, America had continually become entangled in the disputes of the Old World, namely with Britain and France. Now, with the British defeat in the War of 1812 and the fall of Napoleon’s regime, Monroe was in a position to improve America’s stability in economy and politics. Americans also took major steps towards developing nationalism in American art and literature. During the time of Monroe’s presidency, American citizens were filled with a sense of nationalist pride and confidence. As a result of the war, they were less dependent on foreign imports and America could now establish a stable market economy. Henry Clay created a system to accomplish just this, called the American System, which included a strong banking system, a protective tariff, and internal improvements on transportation. The American System influenced American identity because it was an economic representation of the nationalism that was present during Monroe’s presidency. Americans had a renewed sense of confidence in America’s ability to create a stable and profitable home market. American identity was also manifested in American literature and art. Washington Irving became one of the nation’s first acclaimed writers. He was known internationally for his short stories //The Legend of Sleepy Hollow// and //Rip Van Winkle.// Many of Irving’s stories included American themes, and thus set a precedent for literature that was uniquely American. The Hudson River School of Art also had an impact on American identity as the first official school of American art. The painters at this school depicted American landscapes and the vast opportunities that their country held. Thus, American identity was captured in paintings. American identity was also changed politically. Monroe sought to expand upon nationalistic beliefs by perpetuating American “oneness” though the elimination of the power of political parties. In his strive for meeting this ambition, Monroe affected the identity and thought process of American citizens. Up until Monroe’s presidency, the two leading political parties were the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans. However, after the War of 1812, the Federalist Party diminished, along with its sentiment for secession. This left only one party in control, the Democratic Republicans. On the surface, politics during the Era of Good Feelings were calm. Americans were united under the same basic beliefs influenced by both parties in the past Party System. Under the surface, however, factions were being created within the Democratic-Republican Party, especially over the issue of slavery. These factions would lead to the next Party System between the Democrats and the Whigs, and, ironically, the threat of Southern secession. The total elimination of one party’s power and the divisions within the remaining party definitely had a large impact on American identity. In some ways, American identity was influenced by the political calm of the existence of one major party, and a sense of unity that came with it. In other ways it was also influenced by the division created by sectional disputes within that party. Possibly the biggest step Monroe took within his presidency to establish American identity was the Monroe Doctrine, which declared that European monarchies were not to colonize or intervene in the Americas. This declaration truly exemplified the nationalistic beliefs of Americans during Monroe’s administration. By issuing this doctrine, Monroe asserted America’s will to stand up to European powers and its determination to protect democracy from monarchy. It was also the first decision made by Americans to promote the long term security of the nation.

Thesis James Monroe was in a very unique position compared to previous presidents; upon his election, he faced no large threats from foreign countries. Furthermore, he faced very little opposition from the dying Federalist Party. On Monroe’s good will tour, these conditions led to a Boston newspaper labeling his presidency as the Era of Good Feelings. As Monroe’s presidency would go on, however, several things would happen to diminish the “good feelings.” The Democratic-Republican Party would split over sectional differences involving slavery, ending the political calm that was expected by many. The Panic of 1819 would also cause a disturbance to the nationalistic ideal of a stable home market. However, much larger issues stemming from these developments were delayed, at least for the time being, by several policies from the Monroe administration. Monroe would also have several profound accomplishments in office, most notably his foreign policy with Britain following the insufficient Treaty of Ghent and the drafting of the Monroe Doctrine, which would be used by later presidents as a basis of American foreign policy. Because Monroe’s ideas, though not altogether successful, resonated with the nationalist attitudes of Americans, Monroe deserves a B for his presidency.

Goals  Monroe outlined many specific goals in his First Inaugural Address. The first goal Monroe hoped to accomplish in office was to uphold the social contract and the Constitution of the United States. Monroe claims that America had become powerful and prosperous because the government had been run by the people, and therefore the government must protect the rights and liberties of its citizens. Monroe succeeded in accomplishing this goal. When presented with any bill, Monroe heavily debated its constitutionality before passing it into effect or vetoing it. His only veto was cast on the Cumberland Road Bill, which would have given the federal government the power to construct and maintain toll booths on the National Road to pay for its expansion westward. Monroe believed that the power to maintain roads belonged to the states and recommended a constitutional amendment authorizing the federal government the power to intervene. Thus, he upheld the powers of the states as set forth by the Constitution. Monroe also took measures to achieve this goal during the debate over the admission of Missouri as a slave state. Monroe almost vetoed the laws, believing that the federal government did not have the power to ban slavery in a state upon admission. Considering that an unequal slave/free state balance could result in Southern secession and a possible civil war, Monroe was later convinced that it was necessary for him to pass the bill. In this case, Monroe made a wise decision to act on what was best for the country instead of adhering to a relatively strict interpretation of the Constitution. Therefore, Monroe should be considered extremely successful in upholding the social contract as laid out in the Constitution. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Another goal Monroe specifically addressed in his inaugural address was to expand American nationalism, namely through internal improvements. Although Monroe did support an improved transportation system, he did not believe the federal government had the power in intervene. His initial veto of the Cumberland Road Bill almost resulted in a failure at attaining this goal. However, Monroe later approved legislation from Congress for internal improvements, resulting in a small success in attaining this goal. Monroe also addressed this goal though creating a stable economic system where the US was less dependent on foreign countries. While Americans were much less dependent on trade with European countries with his upholding of the protective tariff of 1816, the American economy was extremely hindered by the Panic of 1819. Therefore, Monroe had both successes and failures in his strive to attain this goal. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Monroe also spoke of a goal to enter into friendly relations with the native people. Monroe ultimately failed in this goal because of the First Seminole War. The Seminole Indians in Spanish Florida were working with runaway slaves to attack settlements in Georgia. Andrew Jackson was appointed to solve this problem. Without specific authorization, Jackson attacked and destroyed many Native American villages. Though Monroe did disapprove of Jackson’s brutality, he did not take any steps to punish him. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">One of Monroe’s main goals definitely did not go as planned. In his first inaugural address, Monroe states that he plans to promote unity in the nation and denounces political parties as creating discord. After the American victory in the War of 1812, it seemed as though the Federalist Party was finally being extinguished. Monroe believed that having two opposing forces in government would be harmful, and therefore did not appoint any positions to the last remaining Federalists. Therefore, Federalist power in government was extremely weak. If this meant that existence of only one political party resulted in a harmonious government, then Monroe would have been extremely successful in achieving this goal. In actuality, this was not the case. Factions developed within the Democratic-Republican Party over sectional differences. The federal government was definitely not in harmony, as the Missouri Compromise only offered a shaky balance on the issue of slavery in the southern states. The period of “peace” during Monroe’s administration was only short lived, and the second party system was established, including the parties of the Democrats and the Whigs. Because of this, Monroe definitely did not succeed in creating a true “Era of Good Feelings.”

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Congress <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">President Monroe’s belief in the power of the legislative branch, and his concern for respecting that power led to an overall positive relationship between the president and Congress. In fact, Monroe’s lack of influence on Congress was sometimes criticized, as some believed he was a tool in their hands. He only exercised the presidential veto in one instance surrounding an issue of constitutionality. However, bigger issues would be created in Congress during Monroe’s presidency. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">As the name of the period, the Era of Good Feelings, suggests, only one political party remained in power during Monroe’s presidency; the Democratic-Republicans. Therefore, this party held the vast majority of seats in both houses of Congress. By the end of Monroe’s presidency, there were only four Federalists in the Senate compared to 43 Democratic-Republicans and only 31 Federalists in the House of Representatives against 154 Democratic-Republicans. Monroe’s hope was that the elimination of disputes surrounding partisanship would result in a state of harmony in the federal government. This was far from the truth. Issues over slavery in the south played a particularly large role in the development of separate factions in the party. Before Monroe’s presidency, the debates in Congress had largely been between the Federalists and the Democratic Republicans. During his presidency it was between the North and South. This was evidenced in the Missouri Compromise. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Slavery in the southern and emerging western states and the North’s fierce opposition to it led to a precarious situation in Congress. The South viewed slaves as an integral part of their agricultural and economic success. The North viewed slavery as giving the South an unfair advantage in politics and economy and questioned its morality. Both sections recognized the importance of maintaining a balance of slave and free states. When Missouri asked to be admitted as a slave state, the balance was 11-11. The federal government therefore, was put in a very difficult situation. The Southern dominated Senate approved of its admission while the Northern dominated House opposed it. The Tallmadge amendment was an attempt from the North to require Missouri to ban slavery if it were to be admitted into the Union. Though the bill failed in the Senate, Monroe questioned the amendment’s constitutionality and recommended a Compromise. Thus, the Missouri Compromise was created by Henry Clay. This compromise, which maintained the sectional balance by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state and outlawed slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory, provided a very unsteady and temporary resolution to the issue of slavery. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Due to Monroe’s noninterference in most Congressional affairs, the newly created factions were left to solve many of their disputes themselves. The Missouri Compromise is proof of the sectional differences that were developing in the country during Monroe’s presidency, and the difficulty it presented in passing legislature. While it may be considered a success because it prevented a civil war, the Missouri Compromise only delayed the issue of slavery to be brought up later; and with far more detrimental effects. Therefore, even though Monroe maintained a very positive relationship with Congress, issues still arose in Congress that made it difficult for Monroe to accomplish many of his goals.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Positive Outcome <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Monroe made very positive decisions to take care of issues between the United States and Britain that had not been formally resolved under the Treaty of Ghent, the treaty that had ended the War of 1812. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The first of these important agreements was the Rush-Bagot agreement over the issue of British and American fleets in the Great Lakes. The Treaty of Ghent offered no specific negotiations over this issue. Therefore, Charles Bagot met with the acting American secretary of state, Richard Rush to resolve the disputes over the America-Canada border. The final agreement set the number of vessels on each lake to one or two per country. This agreement effectively demilitarized the Great Lakes and prevented possible hostility between the Americans and the British in Canada. After this agreement, relations between America and Canada would become so peaceful that all fortifications would be taken down in the 1870s. This America-Canada border would become the longest unfortified border in the world, a huge accomplishment that was made possible by the events that transpired during Monroe’s presidency. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Another important agreement took place revolving the issues surrounding the America-Canada border. At the Convention of 1818, Richard Rush and Albert Gallatin agreed that that the border between Canada and the Louisiana Territory should be set from Minnesota to the Rocky Mountains. In addition, it also granted the United States permanent rights to fish off the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland and allowed for both American and British occupancy in the Oregon Country. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Together, the Rush-Bagot Agreement and the Convention of 1818 provided for very friendly relations between Canada and America that would last until present day. Just as importantly, these enormous successes in British foreign policy by the Monroe administration prevented issues that very well could have been created by the vague and indefinite Treaty of Ghent.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Negative Outcome <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The most negative aspect of Monroe’s presidency was the economic panic of 1819. The panic was not caused by Monroe’s administration, but they did not respond to the crisis in a very successful way. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">During the time of the panic, Americans did not fully understand the economic depression. Monroe, like many others, believed that it was caused by British imports of inexpensive goods, when the main cause of the panic was overspeculation in the west. In an attempt to stop British competition, Monroe supported protective tariffs. The Bank of the United States also responded to the crisis by foreclosing western farms. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Both the tariffs and foreclosures resulted in western distrust of the Bank of the United States. The poor farmers in the area believed the banking system only favored the wealthy, and they began to formulate the ideas that would define the Jacksonian era. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The Monroe administration did eventually provide relief. Secretary of the Treasury, William H. Crawford, offered alternatives to indebted farmers that would allow them to pay off their mortgages. By 1823, most of the effects of the panic had worn off. The relief though, was not passed in time to avoid the development of several ideas that would stimulate new political policies in the coming presidencies. As a result of the panic, America was also faced with a very large deficit that would have to be paid off. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Monroe also held a major belief that the panic was to be expected in a developing country, and that too much intervention from the federal government would hurt the economy further. Many criticized this belief, claiming that Monroe should have done more to stop the crisis. Because Monroe did little to alleviate the depression and because the relief he did offer came too late to avoid long term repercussions, the panic of 1819 was Monroe’s biggest failure as president.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Influential Decision <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Monroe’s most influential decision is also the one he is most notably known for. The Monroe Doctrine, as Monroe’s famous statement is now referred to, did not have a large impact on the reason for which it was issued. However, it laid down a basis of American foreign policy that would be implemented by many future presidents. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The Monroe Doctrine was a statement made by Monroe in response to the threat of Spanish and Russian invasion of the Americas. Fearing the Spanish monarchy would attempt to reclaim the newly established South American republics and thus threaten America’s strong hold of democracy, Monroe warned European countries to keep their power out of the Western Hemisphere. Monroe’s doctrine declared that the Americas were not to be further colonized and European countries were not to interfere with their affairs. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The Monroe Doctrine had little effect on the decisions of the European powers as they knew the United States did not have any military of naval power to back up their statement. Spain never did try to take back the Latin American republics though this was mostly because of opposition from the British, who had been benefiting from their trade with South America. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> The Monroe Doctrine became a very important aspect of American foreign policy. It was used by future presidents, most notably Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Douglas Roosevelt. During Theodore Roosevelt’s presidency, the United States was becoming a respected naval power. As the threat of European imperialism in the unstable Latin America grew, Roosevelt decided it was the responsibility of the United States to uphold the Monroe Doctrine. He then expanded upon the Doctrine in what is known as the Roosevelt Corollary. This stated that if the Latin American countries were facing any extreme issues, the United States had the power to intervene to maintain stability. Thus, the Monroe Doctrine evolved from a warning for European powers to stay out of the Americas to a declaration giving the United States the right to intervene in Latin American affairs. America now had the power to defend its territory, but the Corollary also created animosity between the US and Latin America. During his presidency, Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to resolve the issues created by the Roosevelt Corollary by implementing the Good Neighbor Policy. The policy sought to establish ties between the US and Latin American nations by respecting their rights and revoking the ability of the United States to intervene in their affairs, thus uniting the area in defense against the Axis Powers of World War II. Franklin D. Roosevelt succeeded in turning the Monroe Doctrine around from Theodore’s Roosevelt’s presidency and going beyond its original purpose to protect both the United States and Latin America from European powers. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Although the Monroe Doctrine had little impact during the time it was issued, President Theodore Roosevelt’s and President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s adaptations of the Doctrine show its great importance in later generations.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Conclusion <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Overall, America was in a better state after Monroe’s presidency due to the many positive decisions his administration made. Successful foreign policy resulted in peaceful relations with British Canada, and allowed America to acquire Florida and occupy Oregon. Monroe’s administration also succeeded in avoiding a civil war, even if it only was for a short period. Furthermore, the Monroe Doctrine, drafted during his presidency, would be implemented by many presidents in the future, and therefore has had a long standing impact on American foreign policy. The Panic of 1819, though it did have terrible effects on the economy, only lasted a few years. However, it did have some long term consequences, including the beginning of Jacksonian democracy ideas. These decisions that James Monroe made in office created several positive long term effects, and only a few negative ones. For these reasons, Monroe has earned the grade of a B for his presidency.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Works Cited

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